The Roman assignment of rule over Greece from 146 BC brought about profound changes in the political, social, and economic life of the Greek city-states. The long period of conflict and diplomacy that led to Greek incorporation into the Roman Empire climaxed with the fall of Corinth, the last major city to resist Roman rule. This transition from an Hellenistic world ruled by the Macedonian and then the Ptolemaic dynasties to a world ruled by the Roman Empire was, of course, not uniform. The city-states preserved their long-term cultural identity, and Greek ways of life had a steady influence during this period, though many esoteric elements of Greek culture became known primarily to Romans. In the wake of Roman military victory, Greek cultural identity lived largely on, especially in the realms of philosophical thought and the arts.
Greece’s long and eventful pathway toward incorporation into the Roman Empire began with admiration and the exchange of ideas between the two cultures. Over time, this initial fellowship transformed into a relationship in which Greece submitted to Rome’s domination. Major events and conflicts that marked this process profoundly shaped the political landscape of the period.
The Hellenistic wars and Roman expansion
The Hellenistic Wars set the stage for Roman expansion in the Greek world. The Greek city-states invited Rome to help them against the Macedonians. The Second Macedonian War (200-197 BC) and the Roman victory at Cynos Cephales (197 BC) began to turn the Greek world from the freedom of independent city-states toward the era of the Roman Empire.
The Roman strategy of “divide and rule” turned out to be extremely effective. The Romans consolidated their influence by taking advantage of the disputes among the Greek cities. The Achaean League, which was an ally of Rome at first, slowly turned into an adversary. The Achaean League wanted autonomy, which was also something the Greeks wanted. But the Romans and the Greeks were not on the same side about that.
The Battle of Pydna in 168 BC signaled the end of Macedonian power. King Perseus’s defeat left Macedonia in four regional divisions, with the Romans in control. Well before this defeat, though, many Greek cities had either fallen under direct Roman control or had become indirect allies of the Romans. And what did this mean for Greece? It was an uncomfortable stretch of time, filled with intense political unrest and a shaky economy—nearly a century of pushing and shoving followed by a string of Greek losses in various courts.
The fall of Corinth and its consequences
The incorporation of Greece into the Roman Empire came to a violent end. It began with the revolt of the Achaean League, which turned out to be a lost cause. The League’s members were led to believe that they were free citizens under the aegis of the Roman Empire, but in 146, they were dealt a severe blow by General Lefkius Mommius. He had a heavy hand in suppressing that revolt. Corinth was destroyed, its wealth taken, and its cultural wonders reduced to rubble.
Corinth’s collapse had a deep effect on all of Greece. The city-states were having enough trouble under the leadership of the Achaean League, which had been formed in 180 B.C.E. Corinth was not only a member of this league; it was also headquarters for the league. When the Romans conquered Corinth in 146 B.C.E., they not only dissolved the Achaean League; they also dissolved the leagues found in many of the city-states and imposed direct Roman rule. From 146 B.C.E. to 27 B.C.E, the entirety of Greece was ruled by Rome.
Greece being brought into the Roman Empire was not just the loss of a country gaining its political independence; it was also the start of another age where Greek culture mixes with Roman culture. The Romans might have had the edge over the Greeks in military matters, but they heaped praise on Greek culture, considering it far superior to their own in virtually all matters intellectual and artistic. Once the Romans began to mix with the Greeks, the process of osmosis benevolently affected both parties.
The move from the Hellenistic to the Roman period brought major urban and rural changes to Greek cities. While the Romans brought new forms of architecture and urban planning, they also made major changes to the rural landscape. They instituted extensive agricultural reforms. All these changes had a direct impact on the social and economic structures of Greek communities. (Rizakis).
The end of an age came with Greece’s incorporation into the Roman Empire. But a new age began, too. Despite losing its political freedom, the Greek world kept its powerful spiritual force. It went right on influencing Roman culture, as it had befare—no less so than in the case of my own country, where it has gone on doing so since. You might say that Greece’s elimination from the map of political power past A.D. 146 has left the map of European history and culture just as untapped and unchanged as Greece looks in the old Ptolemaic maps I inscribed on the labs of my Euro-Centric high school.
Political and social changes
Incorporating Greece into the Roman Empire radically altered the political and social order of the Greek world. These changes, of course, were not uniformly welcomed: they were painful in many cases—especially for those Greeks who thought they were going to be the next version of the Roman “barbarians” who had sacked Athens and Thebes—but they did shape a new framework for the Greek city-states that was stable enough to last through the late Roman Republic and much of the Roman Empire. And they did have a big impact on the daily lives of the people who carried on the business of living in the Greek city-states.
The reorganisation of the administration
Significant changes occurred in the administrative systems of Greek cities when they came under Roman rule. The more autonomous model of government within the city-states gave way to a centralized form of administration. Greece, as a Roman province, came under the authority of a provincial governor, who was stationed somewhere within the vast territory. The capital of this province was Athens. Unlike the former Greek tyrants and democratic leaders, a Roman governor had the full backing of the Roman army to help him keep order and the necessary authority to collect taxes.
Roman governance, though, was not consistent across the land. Certain locales—Athens and Sparta, for example—enjoyed a lack of uniformity and a surprising degree of rule. In these places, the Roman presence seemed more like a lifeguard than a lifeboat, and the Romans were content to let the ‘free cities’ maintain their own historical laws and institutions as long as the Romans got to play ‘Bouncers at the Free City Gates.’
One of the most momentous changes was the introduction of Roman law. The Roman legal system—known for its complexity and efficiency—gradually replaced or supplemented local legal systems. This led to the creation of a largely consistent legal framework across the empire, which in turn helped to grease the wheels of trade and improve interregional relations.
The administration was reorganised and new institutions and offices were introduced. Local elites were integrated into the Roman administrative system and given new titles and responsibilities. This was done for two reasons: first, to gain the assistance of local leaders, and second, to win over local populations to the idea of Roman rule.
Social upheavals and new elites
The incorporation of Greece into the Roman Empire brought about great changes in the social structure of Greek cities. The old social hierarchy was overthrown. New groups acquired power and status, while the privileged classes of the past were reduced to impotence.
New elite groups formed from Roman colonists and pro-Roman Greek families. They seized the newfound economic opportunities promised by the empire and gained not just wealth but also influence. To be truly elite in this new order, however, one had to be fluent in the Latin language and also know something of Roman administration.
Meanwhile, the age-old aristocracy of the individual Greek cities faced fresh trials. Numerous families fell from their former influence, yet others navigated the new environment adeptly by forming alliances with the Romans or by embracing Roman ways.
Changes in the social status of slaves and freedmen accompanied Roman rule. The Roman system of emancipation, more flexible than the Greek, offered new opportunities for social advancement. Many freedmen obtained important positions in administration or developed successful business activities.
Another aspect of the period was the rise of new professional groups. There was a great demand for lawyers, interpreters, and administrators expertly versed in the Roman system, and these professionals gained considerable prestige. Operating at the interface of local society and the Roman administration, they were crucial to the integration process.
The daily lives of people in the cities were greatly affected by these social convulsions. The upheaval brought in new styles and forms of urban living, but also found the old forms adapting to the new reality. Roman institutions were introduced into the urban environment in such a way that baths and arenas became almost standard features. They, and other features of the Roman world, changed the social habits of those who lived in the cities.
Another area where social changes became evident was education. Knowledge of the Latin language and Roman history and legislation became essential for those seeking social advancement. But Greek education kept its prestige, and many Romans sought Greek education as a symbol of their elevated social status.
The political and social transformations instigated by the addition of Greece to the Roman Empire shaped a new operating framework for Greek poleis. Adapting to the new reality was a complex and often contradictory business. Some saw the changes as a threat to Greek identity; they liked things just as they had been. Others saw the imperial incorporation as a dose of modernity—an opportunity for renewal and evolution. It is this dynamic interaction between the old Greece and the new that formulatively defined Greco-Roman culture in the imperial period, a culture that would have a decisive influence on the subsequent course of European history.
Economic impact of the integration of Greece
The changes in the Greek city-states affected the daily lives of their inhabitants and the general development of the region. When Greece became a part of the Roman Empire, radical shifts in the economic structure and operation of the city-states took place. Some of the changes were beneficial, but others had detrimental effects and helped create a new economic order.
The incorporation of Greece into the extended network of the Roman Empire opened up new vistas for commerce and economic endeavors. The Pax Romana, the time of relative peace and stability that reigned in the Empire, allowed for the movement of people and goods on a scale never before seen and not seen since in the Mediterranean basin.
Greek port cities like Piraeus and Corinth became transit trade focal points between East and West. They opened up trade routes that linked Greece with the farthest corners of the empire. And with the new routes came a steady stream of new products and raw materials that not only added to the wealth of the local market but also stimulated the appearance of new crafts and the expansion of old ones.
The Roman monetary system was a significant force for economic integration. The dinar, a common currency throughout the empire, was a factor in trade and in achieving greater economic stability. But the change to a common currency was not without its challenges. Many places lost the right to coin money, which affected what was left of their economic autonomy.
The dark sides of economic integration were also there. Heavy taxes were imposed, and local resources were exploited. Resentment built up, and in some cases, people suffered real economic hardship. Many small towns that couldn’t adapt to the new economic environment saw themselves in decline.
Agrarian reforms and urban transformation
The profound effect of agricultural reforms on the Roman countryside is clear. The system of latifundia, large farms owned by wealthy landowners, took over the rural landscape. Although this system was something of a mixed blessing, with the occasional productivity increase in certain areas, it led to a concentration of land and a substantial number of displaced small farmers.
Concurrently, the inflow of new crops and farming methods from different parts of the empire offered an even greater diversification to agriculture. The intensification of olive and grape cultivation was such that, for many areas of the countryside, the production of oil and wine became a principal source of revenue.
Changes occurred just as drastically in the urban areas. The mark of Roman urbanism can be seen on many Greek cities. The form and function of urban space shifted with the addition of new public buildings, like baths, amphitheatres, and markets. Though I have to say, these building projects often placed an economic burden on local communities. Moreover, they also created new job opportunities and stimulated the local economy.
The construction of the renowned Egnatia Road and the development of the road network allowed for easier transport and boosted trade. The new economic centres that appeared and the reawakened old ones were the result of that trade.
The structure of employment was also affected by urban transformation. While some occupations faded, others, especially those related to the administration and public services, took their place. These new employment opportunities demanded a significant investment in education and training. It was in these areas that urban schools, and eventually colleges and universities, were to play their part. Meanwhile, construction activity obliterated a large body of workers, and that in itself insatiably demanded workers.
Greece’s incorporation into the Roman Empire had many faces and impacts—it was often contradictory and complicated. Some regions and social groupings found new opportunities and prospered. For various others—especially in the provinces—the new imperial economic order posed serious problems that took time to sort out and resolve. The new environment wasn’t easy for anybody—friends or foes of Rome—to adapt to, and it resulted in significant social stresses and strains.
Yet, becoming part of the broader economy of the Roman Empire allowed the Greek economy to reach unprecedented new heights. The regions within the Empire exchanged an abundance of ideas, technologies, and practices that vastly improved local economic activity. And while the Greeks still held the reins of some pretty important areas like shipping and manufacturing, they had been given the tools to find new markets and opportunities with which to grow.
The social and cultural life of Greece was long affected by the economic changes brought about by Roman rule. The Greek and Roman economic models interacted to create a new, syncretic system that influenced the region’s economic development for a long time. This economic osmosis was a key ingredient in the formation of Greco-Roman civilization, which has stamped Mediterranean history with an untold number of marks.
Cultural interaction and identity
Greece’s inclusion in the Roman Empire did not happen just at the political and economic levels. When two of antiquity’s leading cultures met, they produced an osmosis unprecedented in history. The very character of the Greco-Roman world was shaped—some would say cemented—for centuries by the interaction of these two cultures.
A specific type of cultural synthesis occurred during the Greco-Roman period. The Romans, in spite of their military strength, acknowledged the intellectual and artistic aspects of Greek culture that made Greek society superior to their own. This recognition produced a cultural fusion of sorts, leading to a two-way process of cross-cultural exchange and assimilation.
Art was impacted in a big way by Greek influence. For one thing, Greek art held such status that it was imitated everywhere. For another, when it imitated Greek art, it really paid it homage because it loved it so much that it took Greek techniques and motifs, and then some, to the next level of realism, which is pretty much good old “Romanesque” idealism. Copies of Greek statues flooded Rome, while Greek architecture had a profound influence on Roman urbanism.
In the area of faith, the mixing of cults was equally vigorous. Deities from Greece and Rome mixed, producing new forms of worship. Typical examples of that synthesis are Jupiter and Jove, who were worshiped as one and the same; and Athena and Minerva, who were worshiped as two different but equally potent divine figures. Eastern cults, like that of Isis, were also welcomed into the Greco-Roman world, where they flourished.
Another area of fruitful interaction was philosophy. Streams of Greek philosophical thought, such as Stoicism and Epicureanism, found enthusiastic support among Roman intellectuals. Figures like Cicero and Seneca did not merely transmit Greek philosophy; with their brilliant combination of Greek thought and Roman reality, they took Greek philosophy to a whole new level.
The preservation of Greek education
In spite of Rome’s political control, Greek culture retained its esteem and continued to exert its influence. The Greek language was still the common language of people in the eastern half of the empire, but it was also a language coveted and respected in the west. Knowledge of Greek was a necessary qualification for anyone who sought to be considered well-educated in the empire.
Beacons of knowledge, the Academy of Athens and the Museum of Alexandria draw students from every corner of the Empire. They are, as it were, educational lighthouses, whose beams penetrate the depths of the darkness that threatens to engulf us. Rhetoric, philosophy, and literature remain the underpinnings, the very foundations of this edifice, maintaining a close tie with not only the Greek but also the Roman intelligentsia.
Ensuring Greek education was in place was of utmost importance; it was essential for the continued existence of Greek cultural identity. When a people is ruled by outsiders, the way to maintain their essence is through next-generation transfers. And for the Greek people, the values and ideas that constituted the Greek spirit were passed on through education.
The educational system preserved Greek education, but it was not without challenges. Greek education had to adapt and change to fulfill the new demands of the age. Hellenistic education made the first changes, not only to preserve Greek elements but also to ensure their continued existence. The introduction of some Roman elements, like the study of Roman law, nurtured the traditional Greek curriculum.
The interaction of cultures between the Greeks and Romans fashioned a unique cultural mosaic. The Greco-Roman civilization that formed from this interaction was at the root of all that was to develop into Western civilization. Greek ideas, so wonderfully expressed in art and architecture, philosophy, and drama, were filtered through the experience of Rome. They were then handed down, in a way, to medieval Europe and profoundly affected the course of European intellectual life.
The political assimilation of Greece into the Roman Empire, while it certainly was the end of political independence, did not lead to the extinction of Greek culture. On the contrary, through the vigorous interaction with Rome, the dynamic civilization that was and is Greece spread more widely and deeply throughout the Mediterranean and beyond.
The cultural legacy of this period lives on even now. The creations of Greco-Roman authors, sages, and artisans still zestfully animate and invigorate our world. Attempting to decipher the seemingly baffling osmosis of Greco-Roman culture into the early layer of what would become our powerful Western world reveals immensely valuable lessons for us today. They testify to the astonishing vitality of, and the human ingenuity behind, the power of intercultural dialogue and cultural exchange in shaping our histories and our lives.
Integrating Greece into the Roman Empire was an important moment in the ancient world. The new cultural fabric weaved together Greek and Roman elements, and profoundly influenced Western civilization. The Greek world underwent some big changes in politics, economy, and society; it was like they turned everything upside down and shook it around. But as in any good horror story, there were some continuity elements that kept Greek culture alive—such as Greek education and cultural exchange. You might say these were the lifelines for keeping “Ah! The Greeks are coming!” realities at bay. And Greeks and Greeks who got to know Romans tended to paint with new brushes, using the Greek-Roman palette to create fresh ideas and artistic expressions.
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Bibliography
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- Rizakis, A.D. “Roman interventions in the urban and rural landscape of the cities of the Peloponnese.” Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Peloponnesian Studies, 1992. helios-eie.ekt.gr
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